Abstract Prosopagnosia is caused by many factors, such as brain damage, perceptual processing defects, memory defects and so on. Different pathogenic factors often cause different subtypes of prosopagnosia. Acquired prosopagnosia is a consequence of brain damage in specific areas of the face; Perceptual prosopagnosia is caused by face perceptual processing defects, which can be subdivided into holistic processing defects and configuration processing defects （first order and second order configural defect）. Prosopagnosia caused by face memory deficits could be divided into working memory deficits and long-term memory deficits. Prosopagnosia of long-term memory deficits could be further subdivided into perceptual memory deficits and semantic memory deficits according to perceptual and semantic attributes. The classification of prosopagnosia is helpful to deeply understand the cognitive mechanism and clinical treatment of prosopagnosia.
[1] 樊倩, 隋雪, 符永川. (2014). 面孔知觉中特征、结构和整体加工策略的眼动研究.心理学报, 46(8), 1062-1071. [2] 冉光明, 赵乐, 陈旭, 丁毅, 潘彦谷, 刘燕, 邹文谦. (2013). 发展性面孔失认的认知机制及其神经基础.心理科学进展, 21(5), 808-816. [3] 王月潭, 马嘉琳, 张竞艺, 李弈彤, 丁小斌. (2020). 本族和异族面孔表情注视的差异性:来自眼动的证据.心理与行为研究, 18(6), 749-754. [4] Albert M. S., Butters N., & Levin J. (1979). Temporal gradients in the retrograde amnesia of patients with alcoholic korsakoff's disease.Arch Neurol, 36(4), 211-216. [5] Avidan G., Hasson U., Malach R., & Behrmann M. (2005). Detailed exploration of facerelated processing in congenital prosopagnosia: 2. Functional neuroimaging findings.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(7), 1150-1167. [6] Avidan G., Tanzer M., & Behrmann M. (2011). Impaired holistic processing in congenital prosopagnosia.Neuropsychologia, 49(9), 2541-2552. [7] Baddeley, H. (1974). Tropical conditions with special reference to an immigrant population: Kaposi’s sarcoma, 866-868. [8] Bartlett J.C., Searcy J. H., Abdi, H. (2003). What are the routes to face recognition?In M. Peterson, & G. Rhodes (Eds.): Perception of faces, objects, and scenes: Analytic and holistic processes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (pp. 21-52). [9] Barton, G. M. (2008). A calculated response: Control of inflammation by the innate immune system.The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 118(2), 413-420. [10] Barton J. J., Press D. Z., Keenan J. P., & O’Connor, M. (2002). Lesions of the fusiform face area impair perception of facial configuration in prosopagnosia. Neurology, 58(1), 71-78. [11] Bauer, R. M. (1984). Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: A neuropsychological application of the guilty knowledge test.Neuropsychologia, 22(4), 457-469. [12] Behrmann, M., & Avidan, G. (2005). Congenital prosopagnosia: Face-blind from birth.Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(4), 180-187. [13] Behrmann M., Avidan G., Marotta J. J., & Kimchi R. (2005). Detailed exploration of face-related processing in congenital prosopagnosia: 1. Behavioral findings.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(7), 1130-1149. [14] Bentin S., Allison T., Puce A., Perez E., & McCarthy G. (1996). Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8(6), 551-565. [15] Biotti F., Gray K. L., & Cook R. (2019). Is developmental prosopagnosia best characterised as an apperceptive or mnemonic condition?Neuropsychologia, 124, 285-298. [16] Bodamer, J. (1947). Die prosop-agnosie.Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 179(1), 6-53. [17] Bombari D., Schmid P. C., Schmid Mast M., Birri S., Mast F. W., & Lobmaier J. S. (2013). Emotion recognition: The role of featural and configural face information.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(12), 2426-2442. [18] Bowles, Mckone E., Dawel A., Duchaine B., Palermo R., & Schmalzl L., et al. (2009). Diagnosing prosopagnosia: Effects of ageing, sex, and participant-stimulus ethnic match on the cambridge face memory test and cambridge face perception test.Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(5), 423-455. [19] Burns E. J., Tree J. J., & Weidemann C. T. (2014). Recognition memory in developmental prosopagnosia: Electrophysiological evidence for abnormal routes to face recognition.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 622-637. [20] Cabeza, R., & Kato, T. (2000). Features are also important: Contributions of featural and configural processing to face recognition.Psychological Science, 11(5), 429-433. [21] Chatterjee, G., & Nakayama, K. (2012). Normal facial age and gender perception in developmental prosopagnosia.Cognitive Neuropsychology, 29(5-6), 482-502. [22] Collins, J. A., & Olson, I. R. (2014). Beyond the FFA: The role of the ventral anterior temporal lobes in face processing.Neuropsychologia, 61, 65-79. [23] Curby, K. M., & Gauthier, I. (2007). A visual short-term memory advantage for faces.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(4), 620-628. [24] Dalrymple, K. A., & Duchaine, B. (2016). Impaired face detection may explain some but not all cases of developmental prosopagnosia.Developmental Science, 19(3), 440-451. [25] Dalrymple, K. A., & Palermo, R. (2016). Guidelines for studying developmental prosopagnosia in adults and children.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 7(1), 73-87. [26] Dalrymple K. A., Garrido L., & Duchaine B. (2014). Dissociation between face perception and face memory in adults, but not children, with developmental prosopagnosia.Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 10-20. [27] David W.Loring. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment 5ed. Oxford University Press.. [28] Degutis J. M., Christopher C., Grosso M. E., & Sarah C. (2014). Face processing improvements in prosopagnosia: Successes and failures over the last 50 years.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 561-575. [29] De Renzi E., Perani D., Carlesimo G. A., Silveri M. C., & Fazio F. (1994). Prosopagnosia can be associated with damage confined to the right hemisphere—an MRI and PET study and a review of the literature.Neuropsychologia, 32(8), 893-902. [30] De Renzi, Vitali A., Faglioni P., & Cavalli M. (1991). The impairment of right brain-damaged patients on a sentence anagram test.Journal of Neurolinguistics, 6(1), 1-14. [31] Diamond, R., & Carey, S. (1986). Why faces are and are not special: An effect of expertise.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115(2), 107-117. [32] Duchaine, B. (2011). Developmental prosopagnosia: Cognitive, neural, and developmental investigations. Oxford University Press 821-838. [33] Duchaine, B. C. (2000). Developmental prosopagnosia with normal configural processing.Neuroreport, 11(1), 79-83. [34] Duchaine, B. C., & Nakayama, K. (2004). Developmental prosopagnosia and the Benton Facial Recognition Test.Neurology, 62(7), 1219-1220. [35] Duchaine, B. C., & Weidenfeld, A. (2003). An evaluation of two commonly used tests of unfamiliar face recognition.Neuropsychologia, 41(6), 713-720. [36] Duchaine B. C., Dingle K., Butterworth E., & Nakayama K. (2004). Normal greeble learning in a severe case of developmental prosopagnosia.Neuron, 43(4), 469-473. [37] Duchaine B. C., Wendt T. N. V., New J., & Kulomäki T. (2003). Dissociations of visual recognition in a developmental agnosic: Evidence for separate developmental processes.Neurocase, 9(5), 380-389. [38] Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2005). Dissociations of face and object recognition in developmental prosopagnosia.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(2), 249-261. [39] Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2006). The Cambridge Face Memory Test: Results for neurologically intact individuals and an investigation of its validity using inverted face stimuli and prosopagnosic participants.Neuropsychologia, 44(4), 576-585. [40] Duchaine B., Germine L., & Nakayama K. (2007). Family resemblance: Ten family members with prosopagnosia and within-class object agnosia.Cognitive Neuropsychology, 24(4), 419-430. [41] Eimer, M. (2000a). Effects of face inversion on the structural encoding and recognition of faces: Evidence from event-related brain potentials.Cognitive Brain Research, 10(1-2), 145-158. [42] Eimer, M. (2000b). Event-related brain potentials distinguish processing stages involved in face perception and recognition.Clinical Neurophysiology, 111(4), 694-705. [43] Eimer M., Gosling A., Nicholas S., & Kiss M. (2011). The N170 component and its links to configural face processing: A rapid neural adaptation study.Brain Research, 1376, 76-87. [44] Esins J., Schultz J., Stemper C., Kennerknecht I., & Bülthoff I. (2016). Face perception and test reliabilities in congenital prosopagnosia in seven tests.i-Perception, 7(1), 1-37. [45] Gainotti, G. (2013). Is the right anterior temporal variant of prosopagnosia a form of 'associative prosopagnosia’ or a form of 'multimodal person recognition disorder’?Neuropsychology Review, 23(2), 99-110. [46] Gainotti, G., & Marra, C. (2011). Differential contribution of right and left temporo-occipital and anterior temporal lesions to face recognition disorders.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 55-66. [47] Garrido L., Duchaine B., & Nakayama K. (2008). Face detection in normal and prosopagnosic individuals.Journal of Neuropsychology, 2(1), 119-140. [48] Gosling, A., & Eimer, M. (2011). An event-related brain potential study of explicit face recognition.Neuropsychologia, 49(9), 2736-2745. [49] Grand R. L., Mondloch C. J., Maurer D., & Brent H. P. (2004). Impairment in holistic face processing following early visual deprivation.Psychological Science, 15(11), 762-768. [50] Hasson U., Avidan G., Deouell L. Y., Bentin S., & Malach R. (2003). Face-selective activation in a congenital prosopagnosic subject.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(3), 419-431. [51] Jackson, M. C., & Raymond, J. E. (2008). Familiarity enhances visual working memory for faces.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(3), 556-568. [52] Jackson M. C., Counter P., & Tree J. J. (2017). Face working memory deficits in developmental prosopagnosia: Tests of encoding limits and updating processes.Neuropsychologia, 106, 60-70. [53] Jacques, C., & Rossion, B. (2010). Misaligning face halves increases and delays the N170 specifically for upright faces: Implications for the nature of early face representations.Brain Research, 1318, 96-109. [54] Julia, R., Robotham, Randi, & Starrfelt. (2018). Tests of whole upright face processing in prosopagnosia: A literature review.Neuropsychologia, 121, 106-121. [55] Kanwisher, N., & Barton, J. J. (2011). The functional architecture of the face system: Integrating evidence from fMRI and patient studies.The Oxford Handbook of Face Perception, 111-129. [56] Kennerknecht I., Pluempe N., & Welling B. (2008). Congenital prosopagnosia-a common hereditary cognitive dysfunction in humans.Frontiers in Bioscience, 13(1), 3150-3158. [57] Kennerknecht I., Nga Y., & Wong V. (2010). Prevalence of hereditary prosopagnosia (hpa) in hong kong chinese population.American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A, 146A(22), 2860-2862. [58] Klargaard S. K., Starrfelt R., Petersen A., & Gerlach C. (2016). Topographic processing in developmental prosopagnosia: Preserved perception but impaired memory of scenes.Cognitive Neuropsychology, 33(7-8), 405-423. [59] Kress, T., & Daum, I. (2003). Event-related potentials reflect impaired face recognition in patients with congenital prosopagnosia.Neuroscience Letters, 352(2), 133-136. [60] Leder H., Candrian G., Huber O., & Bruce V. (2001). ConWgural features in the context of upright and inverted faces.Perception, 30, 73-83. [61] Le Grand R., Cooper P. A., Mondloch C. J., Lewis T. L., Sagiv N., de Gelder B., & Maurer D. (2006). What aspects of face processing are impaired in developmental prosopagnosia?Brain and Cognition, 61(2), 139-158. [62] Le Grand R., Mondloch C. J., Maurer D., & Brent H. P. (2004). Impairment in holistic face processing following early visual deprivation.Psychological Science, 15, 762-768. [63] Lee D. H., Corrow S. L., Pancaroglu R., & Barton J. (2019). The scanpaths of subjects with developmental prosopagnosia during a face memory task.Brain Sciences, 9(8), 188-207. [64] Lee Y., Duchaine B., Wilson H. R., & Nakayama K. (2010). Three cases of developmental prosopagnosia from one family: Detailed neuropsychological and psychophysical investigation of face processing.Cortex, 46(8), 949-964. [65] Letourneau, S. M., & Mitchell, T. V. (2008). Behavioral and ERP measures of holistic face processing in a composite task.Brain and Cognition, 67(2), 234-245. [66] Liu, T. T., & Behrmann, M. (2014). Impaired holistic processing of left-right composite faces in congenital prosopagnosia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 750-766. [67] Lobmaier J. S., Bölte J., Mast F. W., & Dobel C. (2010). Configural and featural processing in humans with congenital prosopagnosia.Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 6, 23-34. [68] Maguinness, C., & Newell, F. N. (2015). Non-rigid, but not rigid, motion interferes with the processing of structural face information in developmental prosopagnosia.Neuropsychologia, 70, 281-295. [69] Marotta J. J., McKeeff T. J., & Behrmann M. (2002). The effects of rotation and inversion on face processing in prosopagnosia.Cognitive Nenropsychology, 19(1), 31-47. [70] Marsh, B. U. (2020). The cost of racial salience on face memory: How the cross-race effect is moderated by racial ambiguity and the race of the perceiver and the perceived.Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. DOI:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.09.008. [71] Maurer D., Le Grand R., & Mondloch C. J. (2002). The many faces of configural processing.Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 255-260. [72] Mazzucchi, A., & Biber, C. (1983). Is prosopagnosia more frequent in males than in females?Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 19, 509-516. [73] McKone, E. (2008). Holistic processing for faces operates over a wide range of sizes but is strongest at identification rather than conversational distances.Vision Research, 49, 268-283. [74] Mendez M. F., Ringman J. M., & Shapira J. S. (2015). Impairments in the face-processing network in developmental prosopagnosia and semantic dementia. Cogn.Behavioural. Neurolology, 28, 188-197. [75] Meadows, J. C. (1974). The anatomical basis of prosopagnosia. Journal of Neurology,Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 37(5), 489-501. [76] Moscovitch M., Winocur G., & Behrmann M. (1997). What is special about face recognition? Nineteen experiments on a person with visual object agnosia and dyslexia but normal face recognition.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9(5), 555-604. [77] Nunn J. A., Postma P., & Pearson R. (2001). Developmental prosopagnosia: Should it be taken at face value?Neurocase, 7(1), 15-27. [78] Olson I.R., Ezzyat Y., Plotzker A., & Chatterjee A. (2015). The endpoint of the ventral visual stream: Face and non-face perceptual deficits following unilateral anterior temporal lobe damage.Neurocase, 21, 554-562. [79] Palermo R., Willis M. L., Rivolta D., McKone E., Wilson C. E., & Calder A. J. (2011). Impaired holistic coding of facial expression and facial identity in congenital prosopagnosia.Neuropsychologia, 49(5), 1226-1235. [80] Ramon, M., & Gobbini, M. I. (2018). Familiarity matters: A review on prioritized processing of personally familiar faces.Visual Cognition, 26(3), 179-195. [81] Ramon M., Busigny T., Gosselin F., & Rossion B., (2016). All new kids on the block? Impaired holistic processing of personally familiar faces in a kindergarten teacher with acquired prosopagnosia. VisualCognition, 24, 321-355. [82] Robotham, R. J., & Starrfelt, R. (2018). Tests of whole upright face processing in prosopagnosia: A literature review.Neuropsychologia, 121, 106-121. [83] Roberts D. J., Lambon Ralph M. A., Kim E., Tainturier M.-J. J., Beeson P. M., Rapcsak S. Z., & Woollams A. M. (2015). Processing deficits for familiar and novel faces in patients with left posterior fusiform lesions.Cortex, 72, 79-96. [84] Rossion B., Delvenne J. F., Debatisse D., Goffaux V., Bruyer R., Crommelinck M., & Guérit J. M. (1999). Spatio-temporal localization of the face inversion effect: An eventrelated potentials study.Biological Psychology, 50(3), 173-189. [85] Rotello C. M., Macmillan N. A., Reeder J. A., & Wong M. (2005). Theremember response: Subject to bias, graded, and not a process-pure indicator of recollection.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(5), 865-873. [86] Schmalzl L., Palermo R., & Coltheart M. (2008). Cognitive heterogeneity in genetically based prosopagnosia: A family study.Journal of Neuropsychology, 2(1), 99-117. [87] Schwaninger A., Lobmaier J. S., & Collishaw S. M. (2002). Role of featural and configural information in familiar and unfamiliar face recognition.Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2525, 643-650. [88] Schwarzer G., Huber S., Grüter M., Grüter T., Gro? C., Hipfel M., & Kennerknecht I. (2007). Gaze behaviour in hereditary prosopagnosia.Psychological Research, 71(5), 583-590. [89] Shah P., Gaule A., Gaigg S. B., Bird G., & Cook R. (2015). Probing short-term face memory in developmental prosopagnosia.Cortex, 64, 115-122. [90] Stumps A., Saad E., Rothlein D., Verfaellie M., & DeGutis J. (2020). Characterizing developmental prosopagnosia beyond face perception: Impaired recollection but intact familiarity recognition. Cortex, 130, 64-77. [91] Susilo T., McKone E., Dennett H., Darke H., Palermo R., Hall A., … Rhodes G. (2010). Face recognition impairments despite normal holistic processing and face space coding: Evidence from a case of developmental prosopagnosia.Cognitive Neuropsychology, 27(8), 636-664. [92] Tanaka, J. W., & Farah, M. J. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition.The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46(2), 225-245. [93] Towler J., Gosling A., Duchaine B., & Eimer M. (2012). The face-sensitive N170 component in developmental prosopagnosia.Neuropsychologia, 50(14), 3588-3599. [94] Towler J., Fisher K., & Eimer M. (2017). The cognitive and neural basis of developmental prosopagnosia.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70(2), 316-344. [95] Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1985). Knowledge without awareness: An autonomic index of facial recognition by prosopagnosics.Science, 228(4706), 1453-1454. [96] Wilmer J. B., Germine L., Chabris C. F., Chatterjee G., Williams M., Loken E., … Duchaine B. (2010). Human face recognition ability is specific and highly heritable.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(11), 5238-5241. [97] Winograd, & Eugene. (1981). Elaboration and distinctiveness in memory for faces.Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory, 7(3), 181-90. [98] Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 141-145. [99] Yonelinas, A. P. (2001). Components of episodic memory: The contribution of recollection and familiarity.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, 356(1413), 1363-1374. [100] Yonelinas A. P., Scheib J., Kroll N., Lazzara M., Quamme J., Kishiyama M., et al. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: A review of 30 Years of research.Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 441-517. [101] Young A. W., Hellawell D., & Hay D. C. (1987). Configural information in face perception.Perception, 16, 747-759. [102] Zhu Q., Song Y., Hu S., Li X., Tian M., Zhen Z., … Liu J. (2010). Heritability of the specific cognitive ability of face perception.Current Biology, 20(2), 137-142.
